Later figures estimated total marine pollution at 3.5 million tones, with 48% coming from land.¹³ As one of the busiest shipping lanes, the South China Sea is susceptible to oil pollution. Oil-spills from wrecked ships are not the major cause of oil pollution in the South China Sea,¹⁴ Municipal and industrial wastes represent the single largest source and amount.

 Marine sources of oil pollution in coastal and marine waters are ships and oil and gas exploration and production platforms. The amount of ship traffic - commercial, fishing, leisure and bulk oil carriers, is likely to increase in the region and with it the risk of pollution from ship-based oil. Oil pollution may be limited in extent but have severe consequences for the marine environment because some of the substances are not easily biodegradable and highly toxic. Oil pollution in the marine environment is a transboundary issue. Oil can be driven by both currents and wind across the sea surface.

　

 It is apparent that the most of the polluting elements that occur in the sea anywhere come from the land, waste from large cities includes sewage, industrial waste and hydrocarbons. Agricultural runoff has nutrients, pesticides and sediment that may pollute the marine environment. Wastes from domestic, agricultural, and industrial sources, along with sediments and solid wastes are the major sources of pollutants that impinge on both freshwater and coastal systems in the South China Sea countries.

 Of land-based pollution, urban waste seems to be the contribute, which consists of solid waste, (such as plastic, glass, cans), and sewage etc. The populations of the seven countries of the South China Sea generate about six million tons per year of organic matter. Only 11% of this is removed from four countries with treatment plants. Major coastal cities of the South China Sea are large and growing, e.g. Shanghai, Guang Zhou and Hong Kong in China, Ho Chi Minh City in Viet Nam, Bangkok in Thailand, Manila in Philippines, Jakarta in Indonesia, and Singapore. Few of these cities have sewage treatment facilities. As a result, waste is released directly into the rivers and nearshore waters. Sewage is often discharged directly into the sea resulting in red-tides, and possible bacterial contamination of entire waters. Industrial waste as a result of economic activity along the coast also goes straight into the ocean without treatment.

 Suspended solid/sedimentation constitutes another major component of land-based pollution. Inappropriate agricultural practices and deforestation may leave bare soil available to erosion by wind and rain. Land clearing of forests for agriculture is a major supply of suspended solids and silt in rivers and coastal areas. Inappropriate engineering practices also lead to large volumes of sediment being washed into rivers and the sea. Logging and "slash and burn" agriculture create millions of tons of sediments that are transported through the rivers to coastal areas and river deltas. Many of the rivers of the South China Sea are heavily laden with suspended solids, which have a transboundary effect on the marine environment.

　

 Among the environmental issues in the South China Sea is air pollution. Air pollution primarily consists of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, other greenhouse gas emissions, and combustion particulates from proliferating smokestacks, forest fires, and motor vehicles in the newly industrializing countries around the South China Sea.

 Transboundary air pollution, in the form of both smoke haze from forest fires and acid rain from industrial smokestacks, has spread widely across the region, severely affecting human health and economic activity. Additional large quantities of carbon and sulphur emissions came from smokestacks of coal-fired power stations, aluminum smelters and cement and steel factories in cities along the coastline of the South China Sea. Motor vehicles also generate additional particulate and aerosol pollution, especially in highly urbanized of the areas

 There are many environmental problems in Southeast Asia, including land degradation, water shortages, plummeting air quality standards, hazardous additives, and untreated waste disposal. Each one has multiple causes and inter-related consequences. The major sources for these environmental problems are listed in Table 3.

 In conclusion, land-based sources in the South China Sea region play a major role in both inland and coastal pollution. Shipbased sources contribute relatively small amounts, but may have severe impacts when large volumes are released such as during major oil spills. Atmospheric inputs may seem innocuous at the present time because of a very poor database and because their impacts are harder to establish given the nature of atmospheric chemistry and the larger scales needed to carry out appropriate studies of air sheds. It must be pointed out however, that atmospheric pollutants are most potent in being transported across national boundaries.

　

 As a unique marine region, the South China Sea witnessed rapid population increase and fast economic development during the part two or three decades. These developments in turn resulted in rapid degradation of coastal and marine environments. These environmental problems shared by many countries of the South China Sea are not only common and transboundary in nature, but with similar causes.

 The causes for environmental problems in the South China Sea may be multiple. But the root causes of the marine habitats and environment degradation are the increased populations and the demands made upon the marine environment as the population strives to achieve higher levels and standards of living. Currently, over 60 percent of the population in the SCS region lives in the coastal areas, resulting in a high level of exploitation of the natural resources. Population pressures associated with uncontrolled economic undertakings have caused large-scale destruction and serious degradation of coastal and marine environment. Increasing pollution, both land -as well as marine-based, in the last decade has compounded the problems. These socio-economic causes are manifested in overexploitation of resources, human and industrial waste dumping and destruction of habitat during development (see Appendix 1 for information on social and economic development in the coastal countries in the region).

 The current situation of over-sue of resources could lead tensions and conflicts between policies for developing marine and coastal resources on the one hand, and conserving and protecting them on the other. At the same time, high economic growth is partly overshadowing environmental problems like overfishing, destructive fishing methods, habitat devastation and marine pollution.

 In summary, the problem of environmental pollution around the South China Sea is generally due to: population growth, urbanization in coastal cities, economic growth, increased material consumption, highly polluting technologies for production, and primary resource extraction.

　

　

 The large volume of shipping in the South China Sea/Strait of Malacca littoral has created opportunities for attacks on merchant shipping. In 1995, almost half of the world's reported cases of piracy occurred in this area.

 As examined, there are a number of importance environmental issues facing the South China Sea. Unless there is a clear realization by all the countries of an unsustainable exploitation and irreversible damage being done to marine ecosystems in the South China Sea, and adequate political and economic measures are undertaken, the current situation of the South China Sea environmental problems will continue. The population of most countries of the South China Sea is bound to grow. Therefore, no matter how well the marine environment is managed, it will not be able to support the predicted number of population in 50-100 years time.

 The future threats to the South China Sea environment mainly include: loss of biodiversity. There has been no incomplete inventory of flora and fauna in the SCS countries. Nonetheless, the rich species diversity is reflected in the high number of mangrove trees, finfish and shrimps, among others things. At the moment, a number of associated species are classified as endangered because of the severe pressure. The further loss of biodiversity may constitute a future threat.

 Loss of fisheries productivity. As examined, mangroves act as nursery and feeding grounds for finfish and shellfish. Ecological studies have established the correlation among mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass as far as supporting the life cycles of coastal organisms. Based on this scientific knowledge, it is concerned that degradation of the marine environment will cause a decline in the productivity of dependent biota, and consequently a decrease in fishery productivity.

　

 A number of findings are made from the preceding discussions. First, as the countries around the South China Sea continue to expand their economies and consume more fossil fuel resources, they are faced with important decisions about technology and infrastructure, which will have critical implications for long-term environmental change. Countries bordering the South China Sea have been more concerned with maximizing economic growth and ensuring adequate energy supplies than in preserving their common natural resources. Again the backdrop of regional competition with each other for investment in an increasingly integrated world economy, some of the government is reluctant to impose costly regulations in order to maintain environmental standards. These countries face competitive market pressures to produce at the lowest short-term cost possible.

 Second, it is clear from the previous discussion that the problems of environmental pollution around the South China Sea are only adding to the existing problems of population growth, urbanization in coastal cities and economic growth and increased material consumption.

 Third, the heavily concentrated populations along the coastlines are rapidly exploiting the living and non-living resources of the sea. A diminishing fish catch every year threatens the extensive fishing industry; many fishermen are now forced to resort to more efficient and aggressive techniques and to venture further out to new fishing grounds.

 Forth, though the countries of the South China Sea region are at different levels of socioeconomic, scientific and technological development, all governments of the region have recognized that past actions at national and regional levels have not been adequate for stopping the rate of degradation, and that a more sustainable strategic approach is required.

 Fifth, the international intellectual idea on the relationship between security and the human environment has also traveled to the South China Sea region. The emergence of a new concept of environmental security. It is generally recognized by the governments of the coastal states that a comprehensive security consists of something more than political and military security. Such issues as economic security, social security and environmental security should also be included in a comprehensive concept of security. For the purpose of this paper it is environmental security, which is most important.

 In the course of carrying out this study, it is found that some work has been done in the South China Sea in terms of environmental programmes and alleviate Actions. Organizations and programmes dealing with the environmental problems in the regional are briefly surveyed here.¹⁵

 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). UNEP is well known for its Regional Seas Programmes, which now covers 140 countries. The regional headquarters in Asia are in Bangkok, Thailand, and the first East Asian Action Plan was adopted in 1981. Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand signed the plan with the intention of promoting development and protection of the environment and coastal areas. The Coordinating Body for the Seas of East Asia (COB SEA) is the name of the secretariat for the programme.

 ASEAN. With technical assistance from UNEP and the member countries, various projects have been implemented that aim to support the management of the coastal and marine environment. Three consecutive ASEAN Environment Programmes have been implemented since 1977. The UNEP partnership with ASEAN has resulted in the foundation of the ASEAN Expert Group on Environment (AEGE) and ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment (ASOEN), who have both been central players in the development of the first ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment for the period 1994-1998. However, the environmental policies of the ASEAN countries are much less integrated than, for instance, in the European Union.

 The Southeast Asian Programme in Ocean Law, Policy and Management (SEAPOL) since 1981 represent another two non-governmental network of scholars, government officials, private sector representatives and people with an interest in the Southeast Asian maritime region, meeting on a regular basis another regional effort during the 1980s. The network consists of more than 250 government and academic specialists from the region, and 50 associates from outside the region. SEAPOL was also assisting national programmes and institutes like China Institute for Marine Affairs (CIMA), the Maritime Institute of Malaysia (MIMA), the Philippine Institute of Marine Affairs (PHILMA), and the Thailand Institute for Marine Affairs (TIMA).

 "Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea"³ more commonly referred to as the "South China Sea Workshops - 'SCSW' " ) had involved workshops, with funding from Canada and the participant countries between 1990-2001. Unfortunately, SCSW ceased to exist due to cancellation of financial support.

 More recently, an attempt has been taken by the littoral countries of the region, in co-operation with the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), to establish an environmental action plan for the South China Sea, with initial funding from the Global Environment Facility. A Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) and the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) were published in 1998 and 1999.¹⁶

 Despite its significance of the South China Sea and increasing realization of the importance for regional effort, there has unfortunately been no formal legal instruments between governments in the region to reduce pollution, use fisheries in a sustainable way or protect marine habitats. World experience proves that, to achieve collaboration and co-operation among countries, it is usual to have a legal framework that covers the areas of interest between the parties concerned. The missing of a regional treaty is most probably due to the lack of political wills rather than finance.

 Cooperation in marine resources and environmental management in the South China Sea can be initiated at two levels. At the regional level, it is a treaty obligation under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) for the coastal states, who are parties to the Convention, in the region. UNCLOS provides that: "States bordering an enclosed or semi-enclosed sea should cooperate with each other in the exercise of their rights and in the performance of their duties under this Convention."¹⁷

 The development of a legal framework between member countries requires negotiation and compromise at the highest level by each country. The objectives of a legal framework or document are to protect and manage the marine environment and coastal areas of the South China Sea region, including actions on: (a) Taking all necessary measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the South China Sea area, particularly dumping, land-based sources, activities causing habitat loss and airborne pollution; (b) Protecting and preserving the marine environment and its biodiversity, especially fragile ecosystems, and endangered species and other specially protected areas; (c) co-operating in dealing with pollution emergencies in the South China Sea area; (d) exchanging data and other scientific and technical information; (e) establishing rules and procedures for avoiding disputes and resolution, (f) setting up mechanisms the determination of liability and compensation for damage resulting from pollution in the South China Sea area. At the national level, collaboration across the Taiwan Strait in the South China Sea should also be encouraged, promoted and seriously pursued. Such cooperation might first be undertaken within the academic circle. Emphasis should be focused on and priority given to environmental and resources management and conservation. Where possible, such efforts should strive to be institutionalized for over-arching benefits and sustainable development.

　

 Over the past three decades or so, industrial output, energy consumption has grown perhaps faster in the countries around the South China Sea than anywhere else in the world, powered by the region's rapid economic growth and driven by increasing population. Given the region's growing dependence on imported oil and the increasing trade and transport of raw materials, the South China Sea has become an indispensable highway for the world economy. It is suggested for the same reasons; the South China Sea may also become a sink for regional environmental pollution from the industrial effluents of the littoral countries as well as the spills and dumping of transit vessels.

 As shown by the discussions in this paper, environmental problems are serious and visible enough to arouse public concerns. But this author is more optimistic about the future of the South China Sea. With the increasing public environmental consciousness, political will for regional environmental cooperation, concern and support by competent international organizations, the people and governments of the South China Sea will not tolerate it to become an environmental sink. Rather, There is much reason to predict and believe that the South China Sea will embark on a road and direction for sustainable development of marine environment and ecology.