Thus, as Figure 12.7 also shows, private philanthropy - from individuals, corporations, and foundations combined - accounts for only 2.6 percent of nonprofit income in Japan.
3) Revenue structure with volunteers.
This pattern changes only slightly when the value of volunteer input is added to private philanthropic contributions. As shown in Figure 9, the private philanthropy share of total income increases from 2.6 percent to 10.7 percent with volunteers included, but it is still substantially smaller than revenues gathered from the public sector and private service fees. This is due largely to the fact that, as previously noted, volunteering plays a relatively minor role in Japan's nonprofit sector.
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4) Revenue structure with religion.
When religious worship institutions such as churches, shrines, and temples are taken into account, the philanthropic share of total nonprofit revenue in Japan rises from 2.6 percent to 3.6 percent. Such religious institutions account for approximately 10 percent of the total revenue of Japan's nonprofit sector. With volunteers included as well, the private giving share rises to 12.3 percent, as shown in Figure 10.
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5) Similar to global average and developed countries.
The pattern of nonprofit finance evident in Japan is not significantly different from the 22-country average, or from the developed countries' average. Thus, as shown in Figure 11, while fees and charges represent the dominant source of nonprofit financial support in the 22-country average, its dominance is somewhat more pronounced in Japan (52.1 percent of total revenue as compared to 49.4 percent overall). Public sector payments also comprise a slightly larger share of nonprofit income in Japan than the 22-country average (45.2 percent VS. 40.1 percent overall), though they constitute a slightly lower share in Japan than in the developed countries generally (51.6 percent). The sharpest disparity, however, is in the share of nonprofit revenue that comes from philanthropy, which is only 2.6 percent in Japan as compared with 10.5 percent in all project countries and 7.5 percent in the developed countries.
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The structure of nonprofit finance evident in Japan reflects the long tradition of statism in this society and the cultural norms stressing cooperation and consensus over individualism. Nonprofit organizations consequently have emerged within the ambit of a clearly dominant state bureaucracy and allied corporate sector rather than as the product of grassroots citizen pressures. One of the interesting questions for the future is how extensively nonprofits will be able to go beyond these relatively narrow confines for nonprofit action.
Variations by field.
The general picture of Japanese nonprofit revenue masks some differences, however, among the different types of agencies. In fact, two distinct patterns of nonprofit finance are evident among Japanese nonprofits, as shown in Figure 12.
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Fee. dominant fields.
Fee income is the dominant source of income in eight of the ten fields of nonprofit activity in Japan. Professional organizations, labor unions, and business associations represent the most fee-dependent set of organizations, deriving over 99 percent of their income from dues and fees. Two other fields that rely heavily on earned income are education and culture, which receive 80-85 percent of their funding from fees.
